Bibliography of Gambian Related Publications

Economy

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Title: Economic Recovery in the Gambia Insights for Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa
Date: 1996
Source: Series: Studies in International Development; ISBN: 0674229754 Trade Paper USD 30.00 R
Author(s): McPherson, Malcolm F. Editor; Radelet, Steven C. Editor
Abstract: 336 p 09.250x06.125 I
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Title: Informal Financial Institutions, Saving Behavior, And Transactions Costs (Sub-Saharan Africa, Gambia).
Date: 1996
Source: Thesis (PH.D.)--BOSTON UNIVERSITY, 1996. 217 p.; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 57-01, Section: A, page: 0353. Major Professor: JOHN R. HARRIS.
Author(s): NWUKE, KASIRIM.
Abstract: The emerging economics literature on saving behavior in Sub-Saharan Africa supports conjectures in the ethnographic literature that informal financial institutions are important for saving and risk pooling. This dissertation advances the thesis that transactions costs are an important, additional factor explaining saving behavior and that informal financial institutions play an important role in attenuating their impact. The dissertation begins with a review of evidence from a cross section of Sub-Saharan African countries on informal financial institutions. It then presents, based on unique microlevel data from the Gambia, fresh evidence on credit market transactions and saving in rural Sub-Saharan Africa. The evidence supports the view that, in addition to saving, rural households use the credit market to smooth consumption and that transactions costs may be a factor explaining the choice of institution where these transactions are undertaken. A simple theoretical model cast in the life-cycle framework is advanced to capture the notion that transactions costs are important for saving behavior. This model supports three binary choice econometric models. Using these models and the Gambia data, the importance of transactions costs are assessed. Variables used in these models to capture differences in institutions and access across villages and hence as a proxy for transactions costs are found to be significant, thereby confirming the importance of transactions costs. The results also suggest that gender may be important for explaining financial market participation decision. The results imply that the supply of loanable funds to the economy through the formal financial sector may be sensitive to transactions costs. Using macroeconomic data for six Sub-Saharan African countries compiled from official publications, I test this conjecture with the help of a time series econometric model in which access variables chosen as proxies for transactions costs are included as explanatory variables. The result again confirm the importance of transactions costs. These results support the view of a role for transactions costs in explaining saving behavior. They also suggest that policies that attenuate them may have an observable impact on the mobilization of domestic saving in low income countries. Some implications of the findings for macroeconomic policy are discussed.
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Title: The 2nd-Hand Clothes Trade In The Gambia
Date: 1996
Source: GEOGRAPHY v. 81 no. 353 pt. 4 96 OCT p. 371-374
Author(s): FIELD, S; BARRETT, H; BROWNE, A; MAY, R
Abstract:
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Title: Does Membership Homogeneity Matter For Group-Based Financial Services Evidence From The Gambia
Date: 1995
Source: AMERICAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS v. 77 no. 5 95 DEC p. 1366
Author(s): MEYER, R; NAGARAJAN, G; GRAHAM, D
Abstract:
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Title: Incorporating finance into a modified subsector framework : The fertilizer subsector in the Gambia.
Date: 1995
Source: World Development; Jul 1995, v23n7, p. 1115-1127 (13 pages)
Author(s): Nagarajan, Geetha.; Meyer, Richard L.
Abstract: The subsector analytical framework as currently employed is usually limited to examining a subsector in a single market, product, or input. The framework often excludes an explicit analysis of financial markets due to the assumptions that they function in a competitive environment or are considered less important than other features of the subsector. These assumptions are inappropriate in most developing countries where financial markets are imperfect and access to financial services is rationed. A proposal is made of a modified subsector framework that incorporates the financial markets affecting a given subsector to more fully explain operational efficiency and market technology. The framework is used to study the fertilizer subsector in the Gambia.
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Title: Meridien Biao : Falling down?
Date: 1995
Source: Business Africa; Apr 16-30, 1995, v4n8, p. 4 (1 pages)
Author(s):
Abstract: Meridien BIAO, which used to boast Africa's largest banking network, is on the retreat in East and Southern Africa after the scale of its financial difficulties became apparent. Following its incorporation, BIAO concentrated on expanding and consolidating its African network, acquiring institutions in the Gambia, Ghana, and Equatorial Guinea, and setting up operations in Kenya and Tanzania. However, the very speed of Meridien's expansion program is now being blamed, along with management difficulties and heavy losses in the US and Europe, for its partial collapse. It is now in serious difficulties in Kenya, Zambia, and Tanzania.
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Title: Are double coupons far behind? In Gambia, Giant-brand products are hot items. (Giant Food Inc.)
Date: 1994
Source: The Washington Post; May 5 1994, v117, pB11, col 1
Author(s): Singletary, Michelle
Abstract:
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Title: Credit, Risk, And Insurance In Rural Gambia.
Date: 1994
Source: Thesis (PH.D.)--THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, 1994. 152 p.; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 55-03, Section: A, page: 0665.
Author(s): OUATTARA, KOROTOUMOU.
Abstract: In the small African country of The Gambia, the majority of the population is dependent on unstable agricultural income. However, as is the case in most less developed countries, the formal markets for trading in risk are virtually nonexistent. Farmers and others must, as a result, rely on informal mechanisms as strategies to deal with income risk, and for credit and insurance in general. Consumption smoothing across households carried out through informal risk-sharing arrangements include remittances between friends and family as well as credit contracts with state-contingent repayments. The principal objective of risk-sharing is to verify that observed consumption patterns are consistent with patterns predicted by insurance models. The Arrow-Debreu full insurance model focuses on consumption smoothing across different states of nature at each particular point in time through state-contingent contracts. The empirical framework derived from the Arrow-Debreu model is applied to small villages in the McCarthy Island Division South (MID-South) of The Gambia to find out whether financial markets are arrangements for risk-sharing. The results support the hypothesis that state-contingent loans are prevalent in rural Gambia and that there is full risk-sharing among participants in the financial markets.
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Title: Gambia Commercial Law
Date: 1994
Source: ISBN: 0760512531 Trade Paper USD 295.00 R; 0760501254 Trade Paper USD 295.00 R
Author(s):
Abstract: 300 p; 150 p
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Title: Gambia Tax Law
Date: 1994
Source: ISBN: 0760501246 Trade Paper USD 295.00 R
Author(s):
Abstract: 150 p
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Title: Interbank foreign exchange markets in Africa.
Date: 1994
Source: Finance & Development; June 1994, v31, n2, p14(4)
Author(s): Lum, Yin-Fun; McDonald, Calvin
Abstract: African countries experimenting with interbank floating exchange markets are discovering the significant benefits these markets provide. These advantages include realistic exchange rates for domestic currency and an increased flow of foreign exchange through the official market. The International Monetary Fund recently conducted a study that examined the experiences of the African countries of Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria and Sierra Leone in developing interbank markets. Findings show that there are several institutional and regulatory issues that must first be resolved if the new markets are to develop and operate smoothly. Among these are the market's concentration and size, fixing sessions, foreign exchange surrender requirements, and the involvement of the central bank.
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Title: Investment mission VIsits European cities. (Gambia's National Investment Board)
Date: 1994
Source: African Business; June 1994, n189, p27(2)
Author(s):
Abstract: An investment mission from Gambia's National Investment Board visited the UK, the Netherlands and Belgium in May 1994 to encourage investments in four key sectors: horticulture, floriculture, fisheries and tourism. The country is aggressively pursuing policies to establish itself as a gateway to West Africa and as an export platform for European markets. The country also has numerous advantages in the horticultural and floricultural sectors owing to its winter climate, close proximity to Europe, abundant land and competitive labor rates.
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Title: Senegal, The Gambia, Mauritania Business Risk Overview
Date: 1994
Source: ISBN: 1572055472 Paper Text USD 495.00 R
Author(s): Other
Abstract: 125 p
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Title: Balance Of Payments Theories And The Impact Of Currency Devaluation With Reference To The Gambia.
Date: 1993
Source: Masters Thesis (M.A.)--FLORIDA ATLANTIC UNIVERSITY, 1993. 82 p.; Source: Masters Abstracts International, Volume: 31-04, page: 1538.
Author(s): TAAL, BADARA ALIOUNE F.
Abstract: Balance of payments theories have been developed to examine the impact of various factors in a nation's payments position. This thesis sets out to investigate the impact of currency devaluation in small LDC nations, particularly the Gambia. The Gambia has been struggling with balance of payment deficits brought about by many factors, amongst which external debt service payments have played a very significant role. The models recommended by the various theories are very closely examined in this endeavour followed by an empirical analysis to specifically determine the exact nature of the impact of currency devaluation to the economy of the Gambia.
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Title: Capital Structure And Asset Portfolio Choice Among Micro, Small And Medium Scale Manufacturing Enterprises In The Gambia.
Date: 1993
Source: Thesis (PH.D.)--THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, 1993. 195 p.; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 54-08, Section: A, page: 3136.
Author(s): BAYDAS, MAYADA MOUSA.
Abstract: The focus of this study is the capital structure and asset portfolio choice of manufacturing enterprises in LICs. The analysis explored the determinants of the entrepreneur's simultaneous decisions regarding capital structure and asset portfolio of SMEs. The primary purpose of this work was to identify and analyze the determinants of the capital structure of the enterprise. The study examined the relative importance of different sources of financing, internal versus external sources, in the capital structure of the firm and the factors explaining entrepreneurial behavior in drawing upon different financial services and contracts. The second aim was to investigate the determinants of the asset portfolio decision, and in turn their significance on the operation and evolution of the firm. The capital structure and asset portfolio selection was modeled by considering a one-period world where entrepreneurs possess a certain amount of wealth which is to be allocated among different assets. The model considered two approaches to the analysis of the asset and liability choices by the entrepreneur. The first approach assumed complete certainty of all the variables and, thus, presents a deterministic model. The second approach incorporated uncertainty and, thus, presents a stochastic model. A set of testable hypotheses derived from these models was applied to a sample of 153 micro, small and medium scale manufacturing enterprises in The Gambia. The findings of this study support the hypotheses that the characteristics of the enterprise, such as size, age and profitability, attributes of the entrepreneur, such as education, age, experience and gender, rates of return, interest rates, transaction costs associated with the alternative sources of financing the entrepreneurs draw upon to finance their operations and the respective shares of these securities simultaneously determine the capital structure and asset portfolio choice of the enterprise. In conclusion, the effects of some of these determinants, on the one hand, are in agreement with the pecking order theory. On the other hand, the effects of some determinants support the asymmetric information and credit rationing theory.
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Title: Gambia investment opportunities : Emphasis on export.
Date: 1993
Source: Corporate Location; Aug 1993, p. SSS7-SSS8 (2 pages)
Author(s):
Abstract: The competitive advantages of the African country of Gambia lie in the following areas: 1. a restructured economy, 2. a liberalized market that permits the free flow of goods, services, and people, 3. the freedom of movement of capital, 4. the absence of exchange control regulations, 5. geographical proximity to the West, 6. political stability, and 7. good governance. The result is that, with tourism defined as an export, Gambia's emphasis when attracting foreign investment is exclusively on the potential for projects to generate overseas sales. Under the country's National Industrial Policy, Gambia has been declared an export enterprise. One area which offers considerable scope for foreign investment continues to be tourism. Other areas in which Gambia is eager to attract export-oriented investment include textiles, horticulture, fishing, and oil exploration.
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Title: Standard Chartered Bank Gambia Ltd.
Date: 1993
Source: Corporate Location; Aug 1993, p. SSS17 (1 pages)
Author(s):
Abstract: Standard Chartered Bank Ltd. (SCB) has been represented in Gambia for 99 years. The bank's presence reflects not just its local dedication, but its strength throughout the African continent in general and the West African region in particular. In 1992, SCB became the first bank within Gambia to offer fully computerized teller lines. The bank also introduced foreign currency financing and launched money market instruments, through which major clients are able to gain access to cheaper Dalasi funding. SCB Gambia is also aware of its responsibility to upgrade and enhance the quality of banking throughout Gambia, rather than just within its Banjul headquarters. The bank has made a start toward this aim by establishing a mobile bank which penetrates into rural areas of the country. In 1992, SCB increased its training commitment substantially, with employees traveling overseas to enhance their skills. Considerable growth was recorded in the bank's balance sheet in the last part of 1992.
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Title: The Gambia finance : Liberal banking.
Date: 1993
Source: Corporate Location; Aug 1993, p. SSS16 (1 pages)
Author(s):
Abstract: An important component of Gambia's economic recovery program was an attempt to overhaul the banking system. Strict controls on bank deposit and lending rates were lifted in 1985, banks' non-performing loans were transferred to the Asset Management and Recovery Co., while the Gambia Commercial and Development Bank was privatized, with the Meridien Bank becoming the major shareholder. A more recent move aimed at developing the sophistication of the financial services industry in Gambia was the announcement in the 1992 budget that the country would promote the concept of Banjul as an offshore banking center. However, major inadequacies in the banking sector that need to be addressed remain. One is the prohibitively high cost of borrowing. High interest rates continue to militate against anything other than short-term, trade related financing. Another difficulty is that banking facilities remain restricted mainly to the key urban areas. In addition, products other than straightforward deposits and short-term lending are very underdeveloped. An essential ingredient missing from the financial services industry in Gambia is public confidence.
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Title: The Gambia government policy and economy : Overhaul bears fruit.
Date: 1993
Source: Corporate Location; Aug 1993, p. SSS4-SSS5 (2 pages)
Author(s):
Abstract: In 1985, the African country of Gambia unveiled an Economic Recovery Program (ERP) aimed at reducing the involvement of state interference in the economy through an unwieldy public sector. A market-oriented pricing framework was phased in, followed in January 1986 by the introduction of a more flexible exchange rate system, under which the Gambian Dalasi was no longer pegged to the UK currency, leading to progressive devaluation and the restoration of incentives for farmers to grow and sell their produce. At the same time, restrictive fiscal and monetary policies were introduced, accompanied by sweeping structural reform of the public sector and the financial system. Encouraged by the success of the ERP, in 1990, the Gambian government launched the Program for Sustained Development (PSD), aimed at encouraging accelerated economic growth. Another key aim of the PSD is to ensure that the benefits of economic reform and recovery are felt by all Gambians. The private sector is encouraged to become more active as an engine of economic development.
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Title: The Gambia investment policy : Welcoming foreign investment.
Date: 1993
Source: Corporate Location; Aug 1993, p. SSS10-SSS11 (2 pages)
Author(s): Moore, Philip.
Abstract: The legislation of the African country of Gambia governing foreign investment, the incentives the country offers all private investors, and the procedure that investors are required to follow are all accommodating. Gambia's National Investment Board (NIB) guides would-be investors from the pre-investment stage, advising on investment possibilities and potential joint venture partners and assisting with project implementation. NIB staff insist that much of the red tape that remains prevalent in many competing countries in Africa is not a problem in Gambia. The current legislative framework governing investment stems from the Development Act of 1988, which is structured to guide investors toward areas designated as development projects. Investors must be engaged in activities identified as priority areas, and projects qualifying for a development certificate must contribute to the realization of a number of social and economic objectives. A development certificate offers investors a host of fiscal and other financial incentives.
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Title: The Gambia labour : Training burden falls on companies.
Date: 1993
Source: Corporate Location; Aug 1993, p. SSS18 (1 pages)
Author(s):
Abstract: In Gambia, oversupply within the workforce, coupled with depressed living standards, generally low expectations among unskilled workers, and a realistic exchange rate, have kept wages low. Other key assets within the Gambian workforce include its linguistic capacity - most are fluent in English and many also speak French - and its relative trustworthiness and reliability. However, most estimates put the literacy rate among Gambian adults as between 20% and 25%. Much of the problem emanates from Gambia's acute shortage of educational resources. Tertiary education at university level is not available in the country. In almost any industry demanding a high level of skilled professionals, white collar staff need to be trained in other countries. While parastatal organizations and private companies tend to spend a considerable amount of money on training their own staff, the payoffs in terms of increased productivity are greater than hiring an already trained and experienced worker.
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Title: The Gambia's economic recovery : Policy reforms, foreign aid, or rain?
Date: 1993
Source: Journal of Policy Modeling; Jun 1993, v15n3, p. 251-276 (26 pages)
Author(s): Radelet, Steven.
Abstract: The Gambia's economic reform program differed from other programs in sub-Saharan Africa because the economy quickly recovered and the government implemented the reforms with little political opposition. A computable general equilibrium model is used to explore the contributions to the renewed growth of the policy reforms, the supporting aid flows, and increased rainfall. The individual and collective effects of these changes are measured against a simulation of the economic conditions that would have existed in the absence of reform. The results indicate that the combination of appropriate policy reforms and adequate financing was necessary for successful adjustment. The results show the different effects that individual policy reforms and aid flows had on economic growth and income distribution.
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Title: The Gambia: emphasis is on exports. (Country Briefings)
Date: 1993
Source: African Business; March 1993, n175, p19(1)
Author(s): Gaye, Baboucar M.
Abstract: Gambia is set on invigorating its economy by emphasizing export in its industrial policy. The private sectors are tasked with the enormous responsibility of restructuring their country's economy by pioneering in the export enterprise. The administration believes that successful implementation of its new economic policy would result in the influx of international financing and widespread human-resource development. It does not rule out the possibility of encountering major obstacles in its path to economic development but it remains optimistic on its view of the program.
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Title: Gambia The Gambia: Economic Adjustment in a Small Open Economy
Date: 1992
Source: Series: Occasional Paper Ser. No. 100; ISBN: 1557752303 Trade Cloth USD 15.00 R
Author(s): Hadjimichael, Michael T.
Abstract: 43 p
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Title: Reform without revolt: the political economy of economic reform in the Gambia.
Date: 1992
Source: World Development; August 1992, v20, n8, p1087(13)
Author(s): Radelet, Steven
Abstract: The Gambia's Economic Recovery Program differed from most adjustment programs in sub-Saharan Africa because the economy quickly recovered and because the government implemented the reforms with remarkably little public opposition. This paper examines the politics of reform in The Gambia, focusing on both government decisions regarding reform and subsequent public reactions. The analysis highlights the importance of The Gambia's democratic political traditions, the rural political power base, the relationship with neighboring Senegal, weak opposition groups, strong leadership, and lucky breaks. The Gambia provides an example of a democracy that successfully implemented a strong reform program preceding a national election. COPYRIGHT Pergamon Press Inc. 1992
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Title: The Gambia Economic Adjustment in a Small Open Economy
Date: 1992
Source: Series: Occasional Papers No. 100; ISBN: 068563325X Trade Paper USD 15.00 R
Author(s): Authors, etc.:
Abstract: 43 p
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Title: Capital Mobility, Monetization, and Money Demand in Developing Economies.
Date: 1990
Source: American Economist; Spring 1990, v34n1, p. 69-75 (7 pages)
Author(s): Arize, Augustine C.; Darrat, Ali F.; Meyer, Donald J.
Abstract: A rational expectations model is used to estimate the appropriate money demand functions for 7 African developing nations: Egypt, Gambia, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, and Somalia. Time series analysis shows that money holdings in these 7 countries are significantly related to monetized real income and external influences. Therefore, in order to achieve unbiased results, money demand equations must distinguish between monetized income and monetized real income and must take into account the openness of the African economies. Effective monetary policies in these African countries should incorporate the response of domestic money holdings to movements in foreign interest rates and exchange rates. The money demand equations used were proven to be structurally stable across all African countries. Stability evidence obtained for the money demand functions indicates that such estimates could be utilized by the African authorities to design appropriate monetary policies.
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Title: Economic Recovery In The Gambia: The Anatomy Of An Economic Reform Program.
Date: 1990
Source: Thesis (PH.D.)--HARVARD UNIVERSITY, 1990. 284 p.; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 51-12, Section: A, page: 4213. Major SHANTAYANAN DEVARAJAN.
Author(s): RADELET, STEVEN CHARLES.
Abstract: In 1985, the government of The Gambia introduced the Economic Recovery Program (ERP) in response to an economic crisis which had been deepening since the early 1980s. Within eighteen months, the economy had stabilized and was growing. The Gambia's reform effort has been unusual because of the quick economic turnaround and because the government implemented the program with remarkably little overt public opposition. This dissertation reviews the Gambian economic recovery against the background of other adjustment programs in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It addresses several questions. First, what were the relative contributions of the policy reforms, foreign aid, and the end of the West African drought to The Gambian recovery? Second, why was there so little opposition to the reforms? Third, how did The Gambia differ from other African countries attempting macroeconomic adjustment?. The dissertation begins by examining the economic crisis in SSA, typical adjustment programs, and the political economy of reform in Africa. The focus then shifts to The Gambia's ERP. A computable general equilibrium (CGE) model is used to analyze the relative impacts of various factors affecting the recovery. The results suggest that policy reforms and foreign aid were both important, with increased rainfall also significant. They also indicate that the recovery was enhanced by the fact that the reforms were comprehensive, mutually reinforcing and fully implemented. The politics of reform in The Gambia is examined through the neoclassical and Grindle/Thomas political economy models. Government decision making and public and bureaucratic responses to those decisions were affected by the democratic political structure, the relationship with neighboring Senegal, the absolute and relative impacts of the reforms on different social groups, and the way in which the government introduced the reforms. The Gambian reform effort differed from other countries by the presence of several important factors all at once: a comprehensive program, full implementation, sufficient foreign financing, fortuitous external circumstances, and a conducive political environment. The experience suggests that economic reforms can succeed in Africa if they are well designed, conscientiously implemented, and receive sufficient domestic and international support.
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Title: Economic Reform & Poverty in the Gambia A Survey of Pre- & Post- Erp Experiences
Date: 1990
Source: Series: Monograph Ser.; ISBN: 1564010082 Paper Text USD 12.00 R
Author(s): Jabara, Cathy L.
Abstract: 123 p ill.
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Title: Economics and politics in the Gambia.
Date: 1990
Source: The Journal of Modern African Studies; Dec 1990, v28, n4, p621(28)
Author(s): Sallah, Tijan M.
Abstract: A political economy survey of developments in the Gambia from independence up to the upheavals of the first coup and the shortlived Senegambia Confederation.
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Title: Vulnerable Success in Gambia
Date: 1990
Source: African Analysis, No. 112 (December 14, 1990), 3, 12
Author(s):
Abstract:
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Title: Trade Unionism in The Gambia
Date: 1989
Source: African Affairs, Vol. 88, No. 4 (October 1989), 549-572
Author(s): Hughes, Arnold and Perfect, David
Abstract:
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Title: Gambian Adjustment Improves Growth, Inflation, and External Position
Date: 1988
Source: IMF Survey, Vol. 17, No.8 (April 18, 1988), 120-123
Author(s): Gunjal, Ulhas R.
Abstract:
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Title: Three West African Mini-Markets : Cape Verde, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau.
Date: 1988
Source: Business America; Jun 20, 1988, v109n13, p. 8-10 (3 pages)
Author(s): Michelini, Philip.
Abstract: The resources of the Atlantic Ocean are central to the development of 3 small West African states: Cape Verde, The Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. Located near 2 major international fishing grounds, Cape Verde's economy is based largely on services, and its economy remains essentially open. The Republic of The Gambia is the smallest country on the African continent, occupying a narrow, 200-mile-long strip on both banks of the Gambia River. Maintaining close relations with neighboring Senegal, a treaty came into effect on February 1, 1982, which called for combining military and security forces and eventual economic and monetary union. Outside of agriculture, the most important features of The Gambia's economy are tourism and an extensive commercial sector. The Gambia is highly dependent upon trade and imports about 1/2 its food supplies. After independence from Portugal in 1974, Guinea-Bissau faced the task of rebuilding from a 13-year liberation war. Guinea-Bissau, located about 100 miles south of The Gambia, has considerable economic potential mainly in: 1. agriculture, 2. fishing, and 3. forestry. Guinea-Bissau has expressed interest in expanding commercial contacts with the US.
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Title: West African nation woos Hong Kong apparel makers. (Gambia) by Paul Charles Ehrlich
Date: 1988
Source: Daily News Record; July 18 1988, v18, n136, p7(1)
Author(s): Ehrlich, Paul Charles
Abstract:
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Title: Cooperatives In The Gambia: An Examination Of The Administrative Problems Of The Gambia Cooperative Marketing Unions And Their Impact On National Economic Development.
Date: 1975
Source: Thesis (PH.D.)--RUTGERS THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW JERSEY - NEW BRUNSWICK, 1975. 381 p.; Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 36-07, Section: A, page: 4735.
Author(s): MANNEH, MOMODOU S. K.
Abstract:
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